A study of anti social behaviour and violent conduct at UK night clubs Essay

A study of anti social behaviour and violent conduct at UK night clubs - Essay Example Youth-oriented communities Ð °s well Ð °s Ð °dults, thÐ °t visit the clubs, creÐ °te the Ð °tmosphere of love, unity, tolerÐ °nce Ð °nd hÐ °ppiness thÐ °t is expressed through dÐ °ncing, communicÐ °tion Ð °nd other rÐ °nge of Ð °ctivities thÐ °t mÐ °y not Ð °lwÐ °ys entÐ °il sociÐ °lly Ð °cceptÐ °ble behÐ °viours. Ð s the result of such relÐ °xing conditions in night clubs, the number of sociÐ °l problems mÐ °y Ð °ppeÐ °r. SpecificÐ °lly, the problem of Ð °lcohol misuse Ð °nd illegÐ °l expÐ °nsion of drugs is one of the widely spreÐ °d chÐ °rÐ °cteristic of night clubs. Drug use Ð °nd Ð °lcohol is intended to enhÐ °nce clubbers’ sensÐ °tions Ð °nd boost their energy so they cÐ °n dÐ °nce for long periods. While the first problem is generÐ °lly Ð °cceptÐ °ble behÐ °viour (Ð °lcohol is normÐ °lly Ð °uthorised to sell out in bÐ °rs of the night clubs), the second problem mÐ °y leÐ °d to the vÐ °riety of Ð °nti-sociÐ °l be hÐ °viourÐ °l expressions Ð °nd violence. DeÐ °ling Ð °ppropriÐ °tely with the violence cÐ °used by the use of Ð °lcohol Ð °nd drugs is difficult for police. On the one hÐ °nd, police often fÐ °ce substÐ °ntiÐ °l pressure from mÐ °instreÐ °m society to put Ð °n end to drugs Ð °nd Ð °lcohol Ð °uthority in night clubs, usuÐ °lly through Ð °ggressive lÐ °w enforcement. On the other hÐ °nd, the Ð °tmosphere creÐ °ted by â€Å"eÐ °sy† (Morris, 1998) drugs Ð °nd Ð °lcohol is enormously populÐ °r Ð °mong Ð ° significÐ °nt minority of teenÐ °gers Ð °nd young Ð °dults, most of whom Ð °re generÐ °lly lÐ °w Ð °biding Ð °nd responsible. Strict enforcement efforts cÐ °n Ð °lienÐ °te Ð ° key segment of this populÐ °tion from government in generÐ °l, Ð °nd the police in pÐ °rticulÐ °r. To be sure, Ð °lcohol cÐ °n pose genuine risks, but those risks Ð °re frequently exÐ °ggerÐ °ted in the publics mind. It is importÐ °nt thÐ °t police recognize thÐ °t most Ð °lcohol-relÐ °ted hà  °rms hÐ °ppen to the clubbers themselves, Ð °nd while clubbers Ð °re not wholly responsible for those hÐ °rms, they willingly Ð °ssume much of the risk for

Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business Law - Essay Example If he paid then it was a promise in this circumstances, Watson can recover the extra cost of USD 5000 from Holmes more over for the delay he can recover the actual loss of rent depending on the time extra taken. 3) Misrepresentation as to quality and specification comes either under consumer law if the amplifier for personal use and under MRTP Act if used for public use so the recovery is depending on the decision of adopting the use if Eric keeps the amplifier, he is liable to pay for its market cost of 200$ then he can recover the money he paid extra and compensation for the damage. 4) No, the doctor is not liable to recover the $3000. He is hit by the principle of estopel. The law of Estoppels means that the 'agent' had no power at all to perform the principal is simply excluded from denying that authority existed. 5) Here we can see the ACT of god. Acme has defense of unforeseen government regulation. He can’t be sued for damages but Bob can recover the balance amount due if he already paid if not paid, Acme can’t really recover anything. 6) An oral agreement is enforceable unless its subject comes in the act of frauds, an English Law adopted in the US that needs certain contracts to be in writing. And also in US an agreement to sell real land, property or house to be enforceable, should be in writing to comply with the law. Here there is only a oral agreement between the two parties to the contact so if the Ernie sues for the damage Bert is not liable to pay the same. â€Å"An oral contract to sell Personal Property for an amount less than that set in the statute does not fall within its limits and, therefore, is enforceable without being reduced to writing. The Uniform Commercial Code governs the enforceability of oral contracts in sales transactions involving merchant† (Oral Contract para. 1). 7) In this case suit filed by the Floid for breach of contract is maintainable. And also the other party is liable pay the compensation. But t he same time suit filed by Goober is not maintainable. Because stranger to a contract cannot sue. 8) Yes, Crosby can sue Hope for the breach of contact. In this case there is a bilateral contract between the parties to the contact. That is between Hope and Crosby. Later Hope breaches the contact so the agreement such agreement is not enforceable by law. And also Hope is liable to pay for the damage. 9). If Ace brings suit against Flo such suit is maintainable under law. Here the contact is between Ace and Flo for the $8,000 for a car. But Flo gives a worthless check for that cash. If the suit is filed against Flo he is liable for the breach of contact. Ace is the third party and also the agreement between the Flo and Eb is different from the first agreement. 10). Here in this case there is a mutual agreement between Sam and Bob is for selling of sheet metal in monthly installments over a two year period, Payment is to be made within 10 days after each delivery. If the Bob is failure to give the payment for the already sold goods then he is liable to pay the same for the breach of agreement. Bob counterclaimed for damages arising out of Sam's failure to deliver the remaining installments under the contract is also maintainable because there is an agreement over a two year period. But after the period of 2 years Sam is not liable for the same. 11) Lucy is not liable to pay $16 to the Ethel. Here the actual terms of the agreement is for babysit for $4 for each half hour it does not including cleaning and ironing. 12) In this

US taxes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

US taxes - Essay Example Ruane William reported that income tax is excluded for foreign income that is less than $ 95, 100 but in mid-December 2011, a minimum tax was imposed on foreign currencies that these companies earn from all the outsourced jobs and other operations (18). Tax increase on wealthy U.S citizens is intended to create a cash reserve for creating jobs for millions of unemployed American youths. This concept will prevent another recession that hit the U.S. in 2010 where a large number of citizens especially in the middle class lost their jobs, unemployment rose drastically and small businesses folded. In the past, the wealthy citizens paid less that 28% of their total earnings as tax while the middle class paid more tax. Job creation using tax reforms will improve the economy of the U.S and that of each household. American companies that outsource their jobs and operations to foreign countries because of cheap labor will be forced to create jobs in the U.S because they will incur losses because of reduced tax on foreign money that they earn. Americans require companies that outsource jobs to foreign countries to create jobs in the U.S and improve both income and working

Transfusion in the patient with Sickle cell Disease Essay

Transfusion in the patient with Sickle cell Disease - Essay Example e, transfusion strategy is applied to prevent the recurrence, or the first occurrence, of stroke which is a major crisis in SCD, and to manage pulmonary hypertension and other sources of morbidity and mortality. Exchange transfusions are used to reduce the sickle cell haemoglobin (HbS) levels during crisis. Several situations also exist wherein the indication for red cell transfusion is controversial, uncertain, or downright injudicious. Many side effects of transfusion have been identified and methods to overcome them have been developed. Iron overload (remedy: iron chelation), and alloimmunisation (remedy: phenotypical matching of transfused blood) are two notable examples. Association of haemoglobinopathies and neurologic sequelae after transfusion is also known. At the present time, bone marrow transplant is the only curative procedure available for both SCD and ÃŽ ²-thalassaemia major. Potential therapies involving stem cell transplantation and gene techniques are being vigorous ly researched. A detailed discussion of the current status of clinical management strategies as applied to inherited haemoglobin-related diseases in particular, sickle cell disease and the thalassaemias, is presented in this paper. Anaemia is a syndrome characterised by a lack of healthy red blood cells or haemoglobin deficiency in the red blood cells, resulting in inadequate oxygen supply to the tissues. The condition can be temporary, long-term or chronic, and of mild to severe intensity. There are many forms and causes of anaemia. Normal blood consists of three types of blood cells: white blood cells (leucocytes), platelets and red blood cells (erythrocytes). The first generation of erythrocyte precursors in the developing foetus are produced in the yolk sac. They are carried to the developing liver by the blood where they form mature red blood cells that are required to meet the metabolic needs of the foetus. Until the 18th week of gestation, erythrocytes are produced only by liver

ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS- THE ORGANIZATION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS- THE ORGANIZATION - Essay Example Papworth Hospital also has the Chest Medical Unit that offers respiratory services (Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, 2013). It is a Public  NHS and has a tremendous relationship with the community due to its long service in the area. The philosophy of Papworth Hospital promotes a positive approach to review and diagnosis, ensuring that the patient accesses medical care in the most suitable setting by the best personnel (Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, 2013). This relates to team work from the staff who share work collectively for safe and effective clinical care. The hospital’s mission statement is to uphold its status as excellence center for diagnosis and treatment of patients. Papworth Hospital may be said to be a matrix organization as responsibilities are shared in the organization. The board members are involved in decision making, patients and the public are also included in consultations (Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, 2013). This form of communication explains the level of consultations within the organization. Papworth Hospital seems to have issues with its internal control systems. This means that the governance process must be changed to improve the risk management systems as well as come up with a framework that will ensure that all stakeholders play their role efficiently (Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, 2013). Nonetheless, the hospital is keen to constantly review its reports what allows to control activities in the organization as well as achieve the set goals. The hospital has a culture of reviewing risks in relation to the quality standards; thus, quality service provision efficiently (Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, 2013). Papworth Hospital nursing care delivery system involves modern matrons that ensure cleanliness of the patient environment as well as support the nurses in the wards efficiently (Papworth Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, 2014). Social workers help in discharging

The Internet brand MusicWorld.com. Essay Example for Free

The Internet brand MusicWorld.com. Essay The paper presents e-commerce business idea that could be realized at the Internet brand MusicWorld.com. Mission Statement of MusicWorld.com It is MusicWorld.com’s goal to enhance the development of electronic music by being the premier, comprehensive resource on the Internet for electronic music aficionados and producers of MusicWorld.com will democratize music, creation, distribution and consumption by: assisting artists in the production of their music by providing samples and sound fonts at no cost giving talented artists with few connections or resources the chance to distribute their music giving small record labels the chance to distribute their music online, increasing their viability allowing a fan of the music anywhere in the world instant access to a huge selection of releases from across the globe at very reasonable prices. Executive Summary A formidable opportunity has arisen from the combination of the advent of the Internet as a medium for music distribution, and the rise in popularity of a genre of music that is entirely composed with computer software electronic music. This genre has been largely ignored by most mainstream retailers and labels because of its non-traditional song formats that make it non-conducive for radio play. It is MusicWorld.com’s plan to market the electronic genre of music via a web site whereby consumers will download the music to their PCs. As a convenience, MusicWorld.com will write the purchased songs to CD and ship them directly to consumers who are not yet equipped to download music. The web site is designed for maximum user-friendliness, unlike any other music site today. MusicWorld.com’s unique web design allows users to browse the selection effortlessly, while being able to automatically hear excerpts from each virtual CD. The electronic genre of music is ideal for online distribution for the following reasons: There is a proliferation of artists worldwide within this genre because of the low price and accessibility of the necessary equipment and software The music is created on PC; artists simply send MusicWorld.com music files via the Internet from anywhere in the world Even very popular artists within this genre are accessible to negotiate contracts with since they tend to be self-distributed, or own small record labels Because of the genres rapid evolution and its individualistic nature, aficionados constantly demand new material MusicWorld.com is distinguished from its competitors in that: The site uses flash software, the latest generation in web site technology that allows users to view complex graphics and animations, and hear high-quality audio It uses a push marketing approach in that there is no need to download individual music files It combines the advantages of CD-quality, piracy-protected downloadable music, custom-mixed shipped CDs, an electronic focus, event information, and musician resources The market The market for electronic music is largely composed of University students. According to Jupiter Communications: College students, typically have free broadband access that makes digital distribution much more feasible, not to mention the highest penetration rate of any online demographic. This audience is the first that will be compelled to purchase writable drive peripherals specifically for the digital delivery of commercial music. (3) Aficionados of electronic music are raised in the age of the World Wide Web, making Internet distribution in tune with their lifestyle. Offer and Use of Proceeds The estimated net proceeds to be received by MusicWorld.com from the sale of common shares, is GBP 166,666 (including GBP 16,666 of expected expenses associated with the offering). MusicWorld.com intends to allocate GBP 27,777 of the net proceeds towards the purchase its web site design, and the balance, in the amount of GBP 138,888, towards funding salaries and working capital. The investor will receive 10% of the common shares in exchange. Capitalization The following table sets forth the capitalization of MusicWorld.com as at the dates indicated, before and after giving effect to the issue of common shares contemplated hereby. Shareholders equity Pro forma as at April 30, 20## Pro forma as at April 30, 20## after giving effects to the Common shares No. of common shares (without par value) 1,650,000 1,833,333 Book value of equity (in GBP) GBP 165 GBP 183,498 Summary Financial Information 1,833,333 outstanding shores 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Revenue GBP 405,752 GBP 1,622,987 GBP 4,900,662 GBP 12,964,445 GBP 30,145,945 Net Income (GBP 56,483) GBP 232,377 GBP 1,051,891 GBP 3,275,671 GBP 8,034,936 Net Book Value GBP 39,468 GBP 271,846 GBP 1,323,738 GBP 4,599,409 GBP 12,634,346 Return on Ave. Equity GBP 103,743 GBP 156,368 GBP 812,923 GBP 2,982,460 GBP 8,790,386 Gross Margins 30% 30% 30% 30% 30% Earnings per share (GBP 0.28) (GBP 0.016) GBP 0.07 GBP 0.31 GBP 2.43 The Opportunity The music industry is experiencing two major changes: Music has been traditionally sold in a physical format that required manufacturing, including the record, the eight-track tape, the cassette, and the CD. Recently, with the advent of the Internet and increasing bandwidth, music has been reduced to a digital entity as witnessed by the proliferation of MP3. This is the biggest change the recording industry has possibly ever seen. As we look ahead, we anticipate that the convenience of digital delivery of phonorecords may soon make digital transmission services the music distribution method of choice for many consumers.(4) Music used to be classified into a narrow range of genres. These included classical, pop/rock, country, and jazz. Tastes have fragmented over the last decade, such that there are many more genres of music today most likely due to the proliferation of low-cost technology that allows artists to self-publish. This phenomenon was virtually unheard of in the past due to the enormous costs involved. Once upon a time, people bought pop music. Then they bought rock music. Now, they buy grunge, ambient, illbient, acid house, acid jazz, drum n bass, Eurodance, hip-hop, trip-hop, lounge, techno, glam, industrial metal, lo-fi, dream pop, psyche rock or riot grill. Digital technology encourages this fragmentation by giving each new splinter genre easier access to the means of producing and distributing its wares.(5) Despite its growing popularity, electronic music has been practically ignored by mainstream record labels and radio stations, which are just beginning to catch on. Internet radio stations are discovering that the genre can be lucrative however. One of these is amino Radio: AminoRadio is a 24-hour station devoted completely to music including techno, drum n bass, house, turntablism, and other forms of electronic music. AminoRadio is The Eclectic Radio Companys answer to the huge demand for techno electronic music that is not being provided by any other form of broadcast media. (6) Launched in August 1998, amino Radio now has over 15,500 listening sessions per month, and is growing at a rate of 300% each quarter. The lack of electronic musics traditional radio play is possibly due to the unusual format of the songs, which have erratic lengths. Some tracks are ten seconds long, while the majority are at least seven minutes long. This does not fit well with the traditional radio format of three and four minute songs. With virtually no radio play, record labels do not want to risk the investment of producing electronic artists music. The result? An invisible community of electronic music lovers who hear the music through Internet radio, at dance clubs, and buy it from specialized record stores at a premium. The record stores are supplied by small record labels, which have grown out of the success of certain artists. MusicWorld.com plans to take advantage of the resulting opportunity by positioning itself as the premier online source for electronic music and culture. The Music History Whether we are prepared to admit it or not, technology has always defined popular music. From the development of the microphone that allowed Bing Crosby and Frank Sinatra to croon softly on top of a big band to Keith Richards discovery of the pleasures of an overdriven guitar amplifier, the excitement generated by pop music is often the thrill of exploration and the sense of possibility provided by the use and misuse of new technology. Electronic music is about the era of the proliferation of digital technology; an age in which the boundaries between human and machine are becoming increasingly blurred. (7) Possibly the most significant difference between electronica and other musical genres is the importance of the DJ in reinterpreting and re-mixing what artists produce. Indeed, there is a significant shift in recognition from the musicians themselves to the DJs who perform it live, and who also record their work. This began in Chicago with the advent of House music, which was pioneered at a local venue called the Warehouse. The tradition continued later in Detroit, the birthplace of techno. The importance of the DJ can be attributed to the fact that the music is disseminated by being played live, and by the fact that only a professional working full-time could possibly afford the time and cost involved to gather such rare music from various countries. In Germany, where electronica occupies a significant portion of the Top 40, it is bona fide pop music. (8) Music production process The following explains how electronic music is created using current technology: The minimum equipment needed is a computer with at least a 150MHz processor, 32 Megs of RAM, a MIDI-compatible sound card (e.g. Soundblaster), 1 gig of hard disk space, and music composition software (MIDI), e.g. Cubase already affordable. The sound card is capable of generating sounds which fall into 2 categories: synthesized, and sampled Synthesized sounds are generated from simple tones, whereas sampled sounds are recorded from various sources, often using a microphone Using MIDI software, the musician creates a score which plays these sounds, which effectively act as instruments (think of the MIDI score as sheet music, the sound card as the instruments, and the computer as the musicians) The result of the MIDI file playing these sounds is a WAV file. This file can then be uploaded to MusicWorld.com. The Products and Services A comprehensive electronic music web site has been designed for maximum user-friendliness, unlike any other music site today. The unique design allows users to browse MusicWorld.com’s musical repertoire effortlessly, while being able to automatically hear excerpts from each virtual CD. The site uses Flash technology, the new generation in web site design that allows users to view complex graphics and animations, and hear high-quality audio by streaming the content to them as they browse the site. Music fans can: Listen to various tracks/clips of their favorite artists and/or DJs Download a complete CD in 10 minutes through use of a high bandwidth connection for GBP 4.00 (this includes downloading the cover art as well). They then have the choice of burning the file to a CD, or playing it through their computer. Have a custom CD burned by MusicWorld.com’s staff, and have it shipped for an additional fee (GBP 3.00) Find out about electronic music events in their area, or elsewhere Read/listen to interviews with their favorite artists/DJs Electronic artists can: enter into a distribution agreement with the site whereby their music is available for purchase download (and post) musical samples which are used to create their music at no charge agree to be interviewed to increase awareness of their work DJs can: sample songs/clips of various artists before buying have access to the latest tracks from even the most obscure artist from anywhere in the world virtually instantaneously enter into a distribution agreement with the site whereby their music is available for purchase agree to be interviewed to increase their recognition post tour information Labels can: use MusicWorld.com as an additional distribution vehicle for their talent, at no marginal cost use MusicWorld.com to run promotions for new releases (e.g. sneak previews, etc.) By making sure the site offers not only music to consumers, MusicWorld.com is ensuring authenticity. Web sites that only aspire to be stores, forget why people surf the Internet in the first place: for information. MusicWorld.com intends to provide high-quality information on the topics that interest the target market to ensure frequent visits to the site, and a positive brand image. The intent is to be the premiere resource for electronic music and related information on the Internet. A site of this caliber does not presently exist. Operations Technology   Site Operations Standard operations for MusicWorld.com consist of three major facets: updating the site with new information, adding musical content to MusicWorld.com’s repertoire of products, and distributing such content to online customers. The addition of musical content to the MusicWorld.com site consists of: Artists submitting their music (and cover art, created on their home PCs) to MusicWorld.com’s submissions department as a digital audio file, or on a conventional CD MusicWorld.com screening musical content for quality and appropriateness (a qualified Artistic Director, see the Employees section on page 25) Artists signing a digital distribution contract, whereby they earn 50% of the sales price (before shipping) of each full album or individual track Converting content into a format (Liquid Tracks) that can be played by customers Liquid Music Player or Real Player using the Liquifier Pro music publisher Uploading it to our server The second facet involves distributing content to customers: Hosting the site through a dedicated server Providing samples of music, which are streamed with the Liquid Music Server software. Providing this music for purchase via a secured credit card transaction. This is provided by a third party that specializes in this service, iBill see www.ibill.com) Delivering the selected content from MusicWorld.com’s server (managed with the Liquid Music Server software) MusicWorld.com will be paying a one-time licensing fee (GBP 16,666) for the use of Liquid Audios Liquid Music System, a commercial hosting package that includes the Liquifier Pro (copy-protected music publisher), Liquid Music Server (music delivery management software), and the Liquid Music Player (digital audio listening software). The Liquid Music System not only meets our requirements for efficient, trouble-free software to manage and publish musical data, but also equally offers superior performance and flexibility. The Liquifier Pro is the first professional software that allows MusicWorld.com to prepare and publish CD-quality, copy-protected music for purchase and delivery via the Internet to PCs and Macs everywhere. It transcends audio features by providing the capability to include lyrics, credits and artwork all contained within one file, the Liquid Track. Furthermore, Liquid Audio uses Dolby Digital encoding, resulting in the highest quality audio for streaming and downloading of CD-quality music on the Internet. To ensure audio quality, regardless of different connection speeds, the Liquifier also provides a unique preview capability before publishing to the Liquid Music Server. Target Markets MusicWorld.com target market is very specific, as it comprises those people who already listen to electronic music. MusicWorld.com conducted a survey of 100 respondents, mostly in the UK area, with approximately 10% of respondents were from abroad, (surveyed via the Internet). As this market research revealed, the target market is young (average age 25), well educated (average 1-3 years University), and predominantly male (65%). They have computers at home (81%), Internet access (97%), and spend more time on the Internet than most people (9 hrs/wk). They also are more likely to have access to a high bandwidth connection (31%) than average Internet users, and are also more likely to possess a CD burner (29%). They also buy more CDs than the average consumer. A high proportion (12%) of electronic music fans actually compose their own music, which supports the fact that a high proportion of them (75%) would like to support a retailer, which rewards artists at a higher level than the industry average. This is part of MusicWorld.com’s marketing strategy. Possibly the most important characteristic of electronic music listeners is that they are dispersed all over the globe. For the purposes of marketing communications, however, MusicWorld.com’s main target markets are in the U.S., Germany and the UK. This is because the consumers in these countries are either English speaking or highly fluent in English, have the highest sales of CDs per capita, and the highest concentration of electronic music fans for historical reasons. Since MusicWorld.com’s main distribution channel is via the Internet, an English speaking person anywhere in the world with Internet access can be attracted to our site and make a purchase. Product MusicWorld.com conducts an electronic commerce that aims to fulfill all the needs of electronic music fans and artists. The site will have an image that fits with that segments lifestyle and tastes. This will come naturally, given that MusicWorld.com’s founders are part of the target market. Thus, in the very short term, MusicWorld.com’s goal is to become the most complete online resource for electronic music lovers, regardless of whether the people frequenting the site actually purchase anything. The idea is to get consumers used to using the site for information such that when they are in the market for a new CD, they use MusicWorld.com’s site as opposed to another that has not served their needs so well. After this initial period, the site must continue to innovate and respond to the consumers needs. Even beyond this, it must anticipate what customers want before they want it. This way, it will be hard to take away the first-mover advantage that the site will have in this niche market. MusicWorld.com will rely on some independent, unsigned artists for the sites content, however, MusicWorld.com will also target certain small electronica-focused record labels in order to add their roster of artists to MusicWorld.com’s repertoire. These small labels have much to gain from partnering with MusicWorld.com. Partnership offers a way of earning 40% of sale price while incurring no marginal cost whatsoever. In fact, MusicWorld.com’s site can be seen as a way of popularizing the labels roster of artists. MusicWorld.com will find unsigned talent through posting on Internet Newsgroups, which is free of charge. In fact, MusicWorld.com already has found numerous artists through market research who are enthusiastic about the possibility of the online distribution of their music; f(y)u, for example, whose CD is included at the back of this document. MusicWorld.com will have a qualified artistic director screen submissions, and only make the highest quality music available in order to preserve   brand image. Distribution In terms of the delivery of music, MusicWorld.com’s primary market research showed that our potential customers are mainly concerned with the following: Security of transactions (5.72 on a scale of 1 to 7) Speed of download (5.48 on a scale of 1 to 7) Technical problems (5.17 on a scale of 1 to 7) The site will provide secured credit card transactions as well as alternative modes of payments to satisfy all customers. In the first three months these aspects are taken care of by Liquid Audio, by being a part of the Liquid Music Network. Download times will be reduced as high bandwidth connections become the norm. MusicWorld.com will ensure that the customers who so choose will be able to download their CD without running into any of the above-mentioned problems through the use of proven, easy-to-use software from Liquid Audio. As the customer profile suggests, the target segment is very narrow and would be difficult to reach with traditional distribution methods. The spread of customers has so far made this market very small and unattractive. However, the Internet overcomes the obstacles of geography in the sense that almost everybody can be reached from a web site. Pricing MusicWorld.com’s primary market research showed that its customer have a large amount of disposable income (average income of GBP CAD 15,000, yet many are students), spends money on technology (81% have computers and 92% have Internet access) and is not particularly price sensitive (average importance of price on a scale of 1-7 was 4.8). The average downloadable CD price suggested by respondents was GBP 5,50 CAD. At the time of the survey (Feb. 1999), there were no sites offering whole CDs available for download. Sites were offering individual tracks for GBP 0.55, however. Now, Good Noise Inc. is offering full albums for GBP 4.99, although they do not have any electronic (genre) music, which tends to be more expensive because of the high import rate. The selected price-point for MusicWorld.com’s album downloads will be GBP 4 /unit, as compared to the price of actual CDs (physical copies) sold in retail outlets for GBP 6-8/unit domestic, or GBP 9-16 for imports. This GBP 4 price is composed of GBP 2.48 profit margin (56%), GBP 1.70 in artist/label royalties, and GBP 0.18 credit card processing fees. Such a cost structure is made possible by the online nature of MusicWorld.com’s distribution, which bypasses many levels in the distribution channel, and thus many overhead costs normally incurred by wholesalers/retailers. MusicWorld.com is selecting the GBP 4 price point for several reasons: To encourage first time purchases To discourage new entrants from entering the niche A very competitive introductory price will encourage loyalty. This cost structure allows not only offering a better price to consumers (with a faster speed to market), but also better royalties to artists. Under the traditional record label contracts, artists can expect to earn 10% of sales at the most. With MusicWorld.com’s method, unknown artists gain worldwide distribution overnight, and royalties of GBP 1.70 per album sold. This offers significant incentives to artists who either arent known enough to sign major record deals, or dont have an interest in dealing with major labels. There is also a significant opportunity for labels to be able to distribute their artists work worldwide risk-free, with no marginal costs, no marketing costs, and no administrative hassle. Promotion MusicWorld.com will use public relations, advertising, personal selling and an Associates Program to meet sales goals. Public relations Post MusicWorld.com to all Internet search engines (e.g. Excite, Altavista, etc.,) (free) with the help of analytical software, Webposition Gold, which optimizes meta tags for each search engine, as they all have different preferences Post links to MusicWorld.com on smaller related sites, such as hyperreal.org and Technoindex.com (free) Post newsgroup messages in the appropriate newsgroups, e.g. alt.emusic, alt.music.techno, alt.music.house, alt.music.jungle (free) Send press releases to all relevant media, including electronic music print and Internet magazines, campus radio stations, and alternative newspapers in urban areas Sponsor electronic music events, by posting signage, passing out flyers, and video Advertising MusicWorld.com will advertise in several print publications, which cover the UK and Germany, the U.S., and Canada. Respectively, they are: Mixmag, XLR8R and Tribe. MusicWorld.com will also advertise on the Internet, primarily on Technoindex, an index site which lists all relevant electronica sites, and on aminoRadios Internet radio site (exclusively electronica) Positioning Electronic music fans should view MusicWorld.com as the comprehensive one stop shop for all of their electronic music related needs. This means their actual musical needs, their need for information on artists, DJs, upcoming events, films, etc., and their need to contact other fans of the music. Composers of electronic music should view MusicWorld.com as a source of samples and sound fonts to create their music with, and as a fairly remunerated means of distributing their music and gaining recognition. DJs should view MusicWorld.com as a source of the latest in cutting edge material for their repertoires, and as a means of gaining exposure via actually distributing their music or by consenting to be interviewed, and/or posting tour information. An important note to make is that it is essential that MusicWorld.com reaches all three of its positioning goals, as it is the combination of the three that will lead to success. By having the site supported by leading DJs and talented artists, it gains credibility as an authentic place to purchase music. This puts it way ahead of a simple retailer who is merely selling music. In contrast, MusicWorld.com should become a part of the consumers lifestyle. Competitors and Substituting Products Online Players Downloadable Music CD Quality Piracy protected Custom CD shipped Event Info GBP 11 or less Push marketing Electronic focus Musician resources MusicWorld.com x x x x x x x x x CDuctive x n/a x x raveworld.net x x thewomb.org x x MP3.com x x x CDnow n/a Amazon.com n/a hyperreal.org x x x technogenesis x x x a little x X-radio.com x Astralwerks x GoodNoise x x   To compete with these firms, MusicWorld.com must successfully bundle these three characteristics greater source of information, greater variety of innovative electronica, and downloadable content and build brand equity to be recognized as THE electronica site. MusicWorld.com will continue to offer online order processing for regular shipping to accommodate electronica fans that have not yet acquired the latest technology. MusicWorld.com’s greatest competitors generally offer real-time streaming audio of sample tracks (to listen to directly with RealAudio), or downloads of single tracks, mostly using MP3, and online ordering of conventional CDs. Most are small, independent outfits, formed over the last three years, and appear to be privately owned. Competitors generally price conventional CDs at GBP 5.55-8.88, and downloadable tracks at GBP 0.55 each, plus a base price of GBP 2.772 GBP 3.3285 for a custom CD. The market for online music is already consolidating, as big players merge to create bigger entities with wider revenue bases (e.g. CDNow and N2K), in hopes of protecting themselves from new entrants. Investors belief in the explosive potential for online (downloadable) content distribution is reflected in market capitalization of these companies shares. This threat of new entrants is very real, as witnessed by the extension of Amazon.coms retail mix into CDs for home delivery, and the recent creation of online mega-distributors such as Spree.com and Buycomp.com. The next logical step for such distributors is to offer online downloads. Meanwhile, a variety of small, independent sites are also appearing with alarming frequency. Major record labels such as Warner and Sony Records have recognized the digital threat and are moving to develop competitive alternatives. Some have even begun to recognize the potential of the electronica market, and are signing contracts with major artists (e.g. Fatboy Slim and Virgin Records). Some are even developing separate labels to cover electronica Virgin Records Astralwerks is now a significant player in terms of variety offered. They have not given any indication that they plan to offer downloadable music. The speed with which this industry is moving can cause MusicWorld.com’s window of opportunity to close rapidly. Any investment initiative that is to be undertaken in this venture will have to be taken now. References: Jupiter Communications, Music Industry and the Internet, p.5 Techno Tackles the Net, Niall McKay and Christopher Jones, http://www.wired.com/news/print version/culture/story/16764.html?wnpg=all Jupiter Communications, Music Industry and the Internet, September 1998, p.9 National Music Publishers Association, http://www.nmpa.or2/nmpa.html The Music Industry. A Note of Fear, The Economist, Oct. 31, 1998. AminoRadio press kit. http://www. Aminoradio.com Modulations treatment (Caipirinha productions), Peter Shapiro, available at: http://www.modulations.com/ Quantum Fireball as quoted on www.egghead.com on April 20, 1999. http://www.gvu.gatech.edu/user surveys/survey-1997-04/graphs/purchase/OnIine Seeking And Purchasing.html Calculated from lFPl and Statistics sources. Prices obtained from www.CDuctive.com on April 20,1999. Prices obtained from www.technogenesis.com on April 20, 1999.

Synthesis Polylactic Acid By Lipase Catalyzed Polymerization Biology Essay

Synthesis Polylactic Acid By Lipase Catalyzed Polymerization Biology Essay Polylactic acid (PLA), the biodegradable polymer, has received increasing attention as alternative materials in packaging and biomedical applications. The general method for synthesis of PLA using chemical-catalyzed polymerization produces the catalysts residues which are toxicity. Therefore, the enzymatic polymerization is a green alternative method to decrease this problem. Several researches attempt to improve the optimal condition for synthesis of PLA by using lipase as enzymatic-catalyzed. For an example, Lassalle et al. (2008) reported the synthesis of PLA by using lipase as biocatalyst and focused on the procedure. The results found that immobilized CAL-B was the most effective biocatalyst with 60% LA conversion and 55% recovered solid polymer in the reaction working at 60 Â °C for 96 h. Furthermore, Hans et al. (2009) researched to confirm the mild reactions conditions for the ring-opening polymerization of lactides by using Novozyme 435 (immobilized CAL-B) 12% wt. concentration in toluene to synthesize the polymer at 70 Â °C, D-lactide was catalyzed and 33% of monomer was converted and could be isolated a polymer with 25% yield for a number-average molecular weight of 3,300 g mol-1. Finally, Garcia-Arrazola et al. (2009) reported the synthesis of poly-L-lactide by used immobilized CAL-B (Novozyme 435) as biocatalyst for the ring-opening polymerization of L-lactide at 65 Â °C could be achieved using supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2). The L-lactide monomer could be converted as the PLA with a molecular weight 12,900 g mol-1 under the condition at a biphasic scCO2/organic liquid system media and the optimum of temperature for the lipase activity. All of these present studies are the novel route to produce the polylactic acid and relate improvement of the new biomaterials. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page TABLE OF CONTENT i LIST OF TABLES ii LIST OF FIGURES iii INTRODUCTION 1 Lipase 1 Polylactic acid: PLA 2 Synthesis of polylactic acid: PLA 4 3.1 The conventional process for synthesis of PLA 4 3.2 Process for synthesis of PLA by lipase-catalyzed polymerization 5 Influence of several factors for the polymerization 6 Influence of the kind of lipase 6 Influence of the enzyme concentration 8 Influence of the monomer concentration 10 Influence of the temperature 11 The improvement of process for lipase-catalyzed synthesis of PLA 12 CONCLUSION 14 LITERATURE CITED 15 LIST OF TABLES Table Page Comparison of raw material type and possibility of recycling and biodegradation between PLA and PET polymer 3 Conversion (%) of LA, isolated enzyme after reaction, recovered PLA, and molecular weight (Mn) (Da) as a function of the kind of the different lipase 7 Results obtained for the ring opening polymerization of L-LA in scCO2 with 20 % (w/v) of L-LA and initial water content (aw) < 0.16 13 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 Chemical structure of Polylactic acid: PLA 2 2 Life cycle of PLA 3 3 Polymerization routes to PLA 4 4 Polymerization reactions to synthesize PLA 6 5 Lactide conversion as a function of reaction time for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at 70 oC with a monomer to toluene ratio of 1:2 (g:mL) and use different concentration of Novozyme 435 8 6 Molecular weight as a function of conversion plots for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at 70 oC with a monomer to toluene ratio of 1:2 (g:mL) and use different concentration of Novozyme 435 9 7 Lactide conversion as a function of reaction time for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at different monomer to toluene ratio (monomer concentration) at 70 oC with 15 wt.-% of Novozyme 435 10 8 Lactide conversion as a function of reaction time for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at different temperatures with 15 wt.-% of Novozyme 435 and a monomer to toluene ration 1:3 11 9 Number-average molecular weight as a function of temperature for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at different monomer conversion with 15 wt.-% of Novozyme 435 and a monomer to toluene ratio 1:3 12 SYNTHESIS OF POLYLACTIC ACID BY LIPASE-CATALYZED POLYMERIZATION INTRODUCTION Lipase Lipases or triacylglycerol acylhydrolases EC 3.1.1.3 are hydrolase which catalyze the hydrolysis of triglycerides to glycerol and free fatty acids under aqueous conditions. In addition, lipases catalyze the tranesterification of other esters under micro-aqueous conditions. The ability of lipases has received increasing attention for used as catalyze in a wide array of biotechnology industry, such as food technology, detergent, chemical industry, cosmetic, organic synthesis, biomedical sciences and pharmaceutical applications (Gupta et al., 2004; Treichel et al., 2010). Lipases are produced by various plants, animals and microorganisms. Many microorganisms which are known as producers of extracellular lipases, including bacteria, yeast, and fungi. Especially, bacterial lipases and fungal lipases are most widely used as a class of commercial enzymes in many applications. The important commercial microbial lipases are Achromobacter sp., Alcaligenes sp., Arthrobactersp., Bacillus sp., Burkholderia sp., Chromobacterium sp., and Pseudomonas sp. from bacteria which are used successfully in the market with several products names, such as Lumafast, Lipomax, Combizyme and Greasex (Gupta et al., 2004). Moreover, fungi produces the important commercial lipases are Rhizopus sp., Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., Geotrichum sp., Mucor sp., and Rhizomucor sp. (Treichel et al., 2010) which are used in the market with many products names, such as Lecitase, Lipozyme, and Novozym 435 (CAL-B). Of these, the lipases from microbial have a stability, selectivity, and broad substrate specificity for cultivation such as an applications by used substances form oil mill wastewater, slaughterhouse wastewater, agroindustrial waste and corn steep liquor (Gupta et al., 2004; Treichel et al., 2010). Therefore, the recent microbial lipases have gained special industrial attention for used as biocatalyst in rapidly growing biotechnology. Polylactic acid Polylactic acid or the short name is PLA is a thermoplastic aliphatic polyester which a synthetic polymer based on lactic acid (LA) and have a helical structure was shown in Figure 1. PLA derived from the fermentation of renewable resources such as corn starch, tapioca products and sugarcanes. Figure 1 Chemical structure of Polylactic acid: PLA. PLA has received increasing attention as alternative materials in packaging and biomedical applications due to PLA is a biodegradable polymer, it easily degrades by simple hydrolysis of microorganisms under the appropriate conditions (Garlotta, 2001; Avinc and Khoddami, 2009). PLA has a high-strength, high-modulus, brightness, barrier properties and good moisture management as a result of its interesting for used in packaging and composite materials for clothing applications (Garlotta, 2001). Furthermore, PLA has a biocompatible and bioabsorbable properties which can be used for wide range applications in biomedical and pharmaceutical technology, such as surgical sutures, tissue engineering scaffolds, absorbable bone plates, artificial skin, and controlled drug-release systems (Lassalle and Ferreira, 2008; Avinc and Khoddami, 2009; Hans et al., 2009). Because of its compost based on a natural substance which make a biodegradability, PLA is to be a more environmentally-friendly polymer than poly ethylene terepthalate (PET) which is derived from a synthetic petrochemical-based materials due to PLA is lower greenhouse gas emission and significant energy savings, PLA avoids the problems related to plastic waste accumulation. The result of comparison between PLA and PET polymer was shown in Table 1. Table 1 Comparison of raw material type and possibility of recycling and biodegradation between PLA and PET polymer. Indexes PLA PET Initial raw material base Renewable plant stock Petroleum products Non-renewable resources Recycling of polymer wastes Total recycling possible Total recycling possible Biodegradation of polymer wastes Total Does not degrade Source: Avinc and Khoddami (2009) PLA products are easily composted or recycled under appropriate conditions at the end of the product life. The Figure 2 show the life cycle of PLA material degrades first by microbial hydrolysis, then the carbon dioxide and water which obtained from reaction became the basic necessities for a new growth and leading to produced lactic acid (LA) for re-used as a monomer in the production of a new PLA (Avinc and Khoddami, 2009). Figure 2 Life cycle of PLA. Synthesis of polylactic acid: PLA The synthesis of PLA starts with the extraction of sugars (e.g., glucose and dextrose) from natural substances which used as a substrate in fermentation of lactic acid by microorganisms. Lactic acid (LA) is the starting material for the PLA production process, through polymerization. There are two major routes to synthesize PLA from LA monomer which are showed in Figure 3 (Avinc and Khoddami, 2009). Figure 3 Polymerization routes to PLA. From the Figure 3, polymerization routes to PLA are distributed as two processes, the first route is a polycondensation polymerization and the second route is a ring opening polymerization. The conventional process for synthesis of PLA The production process to synthesize PLA by polycondensation of LA is the conventional process for making PLA. This process need to carry out under high vacuum and high temperature, solvent is used to extract the water through the condensation reaction (Avinc and Khoddami, 2009). However, PLA polymer products obtained tends to have low molecular weight. Therefore, the second route is improved by ring opening polymerization of LA which is condensed of water and then converted into cyclic dimer of LA or lactide for used as a monomer in ring opening polymerization. PLA polymer products obtained higher molecular weight than the first route and used milder conditions. Polymerization of PLA need to use a catalyst for supporting the conversion of LA to PLA. The catalysts are divided into two types, the first is the chemo-process which is the polymerization by used a metal as a catalyst and the second is the bio-process which is the polymerization by used a LA-polymerizing enzyme as a catalyst. The chemo-process made the residues of heavy metals based catalysts, such as oxides of Zinc (Zn) and Stannum or Tin (Sn) which are toxicity. Furthermore, the process need high purity monomers, high temperature and high vacuum for serving conditions reactions. On the other hand, the bio-process used an enzyme based catalysts such as lipases which are non-toxic. Also, PLA polymer products can be used for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. Moreover, polymerization reaction can be run under mild and environmentally-friendly conditions (Taguchi et al., 2008; Lassalle and Ferreira, 2008; Hans et al., 2009). Process for synthesis of PLA by lipase-catalyzed polymerization From the advantages of the bio-process or the enzymatic-catalyst polymerization, there are several researches attempts to synthesize PLA by used enzyme as catalyst such as lipase-catalyzed in the ring opening polymerization. The reaction of polymerization can be set up follow with the Figure 4. In the reactor compounded with LA, lipase, solvent and purge gas which is used for protection to occur of the regeneration of PLA. Furthermore, the total reactions need to control the optimal temperature and reaction time. Figure 4 Polymerization reactions to synthesize PLA. The measurements which used to represent the properties of PLA polymer products are considered in several parameters. The important of evaluations are the conversion of LA, the molecular weight of PLA polymer products, the recovery of PLA and the recovery of lipases at the end of reactions. Influence of several factors for the polymerization Production of a good PLA, must be use a good set up reaction of polymerization. Otherwise, the influence of the several factors such as a kind of lipases, enzyme concentration, monomer concentration and temperature needs to be considered together. Influence of the kind of lipase Lassalle et al. (2008) researched the influence of the kind of lipase for the synthesis of polylactic acid (PLA) by using the three kind of lipases as biocatalysts. Porcine pancreatic lipase (PPL) from mammalian, Candida antarctica lipase B (Immobilized CAL-B) from fungal, and Pseudomonas cepacia (PCL) from bacterial origin were used in the experiment. The reaction was carried out by operating of LA, lipase, and solvent at 60 oC for 96 h. The performance of the three lipases was evaluated in a term of the conversion of LA to PLA and expressed as percentage (%) conversion. Table 2 Conversion (%) of LA, isolated enzyme after reaction, recovered PLA, and molecular weight (Mn) (Da) as a function of the kind of the different lipase. Enzyme % Conversion % recovered PLA % recovered lipase Mn (Da) Imm.CAL-B 58 55 85 446 PCL 88 12 34 400 PPL 96 2 90 768 Source: Lassalle and Ferreira (2008) The result was presented in the Table 2, using the immobilized CAL-B as catalyst obtained 58% conversion of LA, 55% recovered PLA, 85% recovered lipase, and 446 Da of Molecular weight. For using PCL as catalyst obtained 88% conversion of LA, 12% recovered PLA, 34% recovered lipase, and 400 Da of Molecular weight. For using PPL as catalyst obtained 96% conversion of LA, 2% recovered PLA, 90% recovered lipase, and 768 Da of Molecular weight. From the result found that higher conversion levels were measured in the case of soluble enzymes, but only traces of solid polyesters were recovered in this cases. In contrast, amounts of solid PLA were recovered using immobilized CAL-B, and the conversion was lower than soluble lipases. For the conclusion of the experiment, the immobilized CAL-B was the most effective biocatalyst with 60% conversion of LA and 55% recovered solid polymer in the reaction working at 60 oC for 96 h. Influence of the enzyme concentration There are several researches used the immobilized CAL-B lipase for esterification reaction due to its high catalytic activity but it does not propagate in polymerization reaction. So, Hans et al. (2009) researched to confirm the synthesis of PLA by immobilized CAL-B (Novozyme 435) catalyst in ring opening polymerization of lactide. The reaction was improved by adding nitrogen gas into the reactor for protected regeneration of PLA to LA and used toluene as a solvent for enzymatic polymerization. The objective of this study is find an optimal reaction condition such as enzyme concentration, monomer concentration and optimal temperature. Figure 5 Lactide conversion as a function of reaction time for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at 70 oC with a monomer to toluene ratio of 1:2 (g:mL) and use different concentration of Novozyme 435. The first factor is influence of the enzyme concentration. The result was presented in Figure 5, the overall monomer conversion increases when increasing amounts of enzyme. The reaction catalyzed with 25 wt.-% of enzyme up to 100% monomer conversion after 2 days, while the reaction catalyzed with 10 wt.-% of enzyme up to only 25% monomer conversion. Figure 6 Molecular weight as a function of conversion plots for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at 70 oC with a monomer to toluene ratio of 1:2 (g:mL) and use different concentration of Novozyme 435. In contrast, the relation of molecular weight and conversion are represented in Figure 6. The result found that 25 wt.-% of enzyme obtained the molecular weight of PLA lower than 15 wt.-% of enzyme and 10 wt.-% of enzyme at the same conversion due to higher enzyme concentrations have more water which is introduced into the reaction and leads to a decrease of the molecular weight. Amounts of water within the reaction have an influence for the molecular weight PLA polymer products (Hans et al., 2009). The normal of reaction for synthesis PLA by lipase-catalyst distribute into 3 step, the first step is the monomer activation which is the combination of lipases and lactic acid (LA), then the lipase-LA combine with water for extension of pre-polymer and release the component of lipase-OH in the initiation step, the last step is the chain propagation which increase the number of monomer within polymer chain. In any case, if there is a lot of water in the reaction, it will occur the conformation of the other component as free water and a linkage between lipase and water by loosely bound and tightly bound. The free water and lipase-water loosely bound can break the polymer chain in the initiation and affect to decrease a molecular weight of PLA polymer products. Influence of the monomer concentration Hans et al. (2009) studied influence of the monomer concentration by expected that increasing monomer concentration, the polymerization rate and the overall monomer conversion will increase. Figure 7 Lactide conversion as a function of reaction time for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at different monomer to toluene ratio (monomer concentration) at 70 oC with 15 wt.-% of Novozyme 435. From the Figure 7 observed at the monomer to toluene ratio 1:2 and 1:3, the high conversion increase and then decrease when the monomer concentration decrease. Exclusion a monomer to toluene ratio 1:1, the conversion is also lower which might result from a poor solubility of the substrate and the precipitation of PLA. For the conclusion of the experiment, the immobilized CAL-B was the most effective biocatalyst with 33% of monomer was converted and could be isolated a polymer with 25% yield for a number-average molecular weight of 3,300 g mol-1. Influence of the temperature Furthermore, Hans et al. (2009) expected that the temperature affect to PLA polymer products in ring opening polymerization as show in the Figure 8. Figure 8 Lactide conversion as a function of reaction time for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at different temperatures with 15 wt.-% of Novozyme 435 and a monomer to toluene ration 1:3. From the Figure 8 observed that increasing temperature, the monomer conversion decrease. At 80 oC and 90 oC, a monomer conversion does not exceed 25 % in 2 days while at 60 oC and 70 oC, a monomer conversion reaches about 60 % and at 50 oC, a monomer conversion reach to 80 %. In the case of ring opening polymerization of lactide by lipase-catalyst at higher temperature might induce an enhanced deactivation of the enzyme which led to low monomer conversion. Figure 9 Number-average molecular weight as a function of temperature for the ring opening polymerization of DD-lactide at different monomer conversion with 15 wt.-% of Novozyme 435 and a monomer to toluene ratio 1:3. The relative of molecular weights and temperatures at different conversions are presented in the figure 9, at 60 % and 50 % conversion obtained a highest molecular weights at 60 oC and drop off at higher temperatures. Explanation is an increase temperature release of free and loosely bound water which make denaturation of the enzyme. The other reason is a decrease in temperatures also induces a lower solubility of the polylactide and affect difficult to maintain a homogeneous solution. The improvement of process for lipase-catalyzed synthesis of PLA From the study about the influence of several factors for ring opening polymerization by lipase-catalyst observed that the enzymatic synthesis of PLA by use volatile organic compounds solvent do not encouraging due to a poor solubility of the substrates in polymerization reactions. In addition, the high temperature to reach the melting point of LA at 92 oC-95 oC might cause partial enzyme deactivation (Garcia-Arrazola et al., 2009). Garcia-Arrazola et al. (2009) improved the polymerization reaction to obtain PLA by used supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) as a solvent replacement of the volatile organic compound (VOCs). The advantage of scCO2 is non-expensive, non-flammable, non-toxic, low melting point, low viscosity, high diffusion coefficient, and friendly in synthetic processes. Table 3 Results obtained for the ring opening polymerization of L-LA in scCO2 with 20 % (w/v) of L-LA and initial water content (aw) < 0.16. Entry Biocatalyst (wt%) Time (days) Polymer yield (%) 1 10 1 5.70 2 10 2 9.77 3 10 3 11.03 4 10 4 1.64 5 15 1 3.2 6 15 3 5.16 7 15 5 5.35 8 15 7